Cooling and Heating Systems

Any improvement made to the five basic sections of a building is a violation of the work of "building". The five sections are: the floor, the walls, the roof, the door, and the windows. Household appliances that are attached to these five basic sections are not considered part of them because their main use is as an appliance and not as part of the building structure. Therefore, attaching them is not a violation of the work of building, but a violation of the work of improving a building. Repairing them is also a violation of the work of improving a building because the appliance is attached to the building.

There are various halachic problems in using the basic refrigerator-freezer combination appliance in use today. Some of these problems are standard and some relate to the various optional features that are offered by the manufacturer. Before we approach these problems it is necessary to note that today without the use of a refrigerator the main course of the Sabbath meal may be inedible, and medicines and infants' and children's food may spoil. It is because of these inconveniences that we need to define the problems and try to remedy them.

With luxury attachments to refrigerators that are not needed for basic food preservation, such as ice makers, digital readouts, auto sensing lights, and the likes, there is no basis to apply to them the same leniencies as applied to the basic refrigerator, and they must be deactivated before the Sabbath, and preferably not used at all on the Sabbath. Furthermore, some of these attachments are clearly prohibited to be used on the Sabbath.

The most basic problem is the refrigerator bulb that turns on upon opening the door. This is a violation of the Biblical work of kindling a fire. The way to correct this problem is simply to remove the bulb. A problem arises when someone unintentionally replaces the bulb. It may be permitted to open the door through a double Rabbinical prohibition. A simple way of doing this is by wrapping a towel around the handle and having two people open the door together. Two people doing a work in an unusual manner is a double Rabbinical prohibition. The circumstances that justify using this method are: when he feels that his Sabbath joy will be severely compromised if he and his children will not be able to partake of the Sabbath meal; when the nutritional meal of the infant is in the refrigerator and there is no substitute; when a person who is ill does not have any substitute medicine except for that in the refrigerator. Closing the door involves a Rabbinical prohibition of quenching a metal fire, therefore, it is sufficient for one person to close it with the towel.

A thermostat controls the refrigerator's cooling system. Theoretically, if the door is opened when the cooling system is on, the temperature inside is increased and the system must work longer to cool it to the degree needed for the thermostat to put it at rest. If a timer would close the system, opening the door would cause the system to work longer to cool it after the timer turned it back on. The increased working time of the motors is not due to an improvement in the motor, but due to the thermostat. However, by causing the motor to work longer he is causing the motor to continue to create sparks and he is unintentionally kindling a fire. It is unintentional because the sparks are a byproduct of the motor and are not needed for its operation. It is therefore, a Rabbinical prohibition. When closing the door afterwards he is enabling the unit to cool to the degree at which the thermostat will put it at rest. He is therefore, causing the motor to stop earlier than it would have if the door would have been left open, but it will still work longer than it would have if he had not opened it at all. Regarding stopping the production of sparks earlier, this is not considered quenching a fire since he is not quenching the sparks themselves. He is, however, quenching a metal fire which is the burning ends of the wires that produce the sparks. These ends are red hot. When the circumstances justify it, as explained before, it is permitted to open it and close it in an unusual way.

If the door is opened when the system is off, the temperature inside is increased and this causes the thermostat to turn on the motor earlier, creating sparks. This is also a Rabbinical prohibition of making a temporary implement. When closing the door afterwards, all he is doing is preventing the motor from going on prematurely. There is no prohibition of quenching a fire when that fire does not yet exist although it will be created. All he did was to prevent it from going on earlier. When the circumstances justify it, he may open it in an unusual way.

There are models that turn off the fan when the door is opened, and start it when the door is closed afterwards. This situation is avoidable by gluing the button before the Sabbath so that opening or closing the door will not affect the fan. It is a rule that if we must permit something we must minimize the amount of prohibitions that are being violated. If on the Sabbath he discovered that the switch was not deactivated, if the circumstances justify it, it is permitted to open and close the door in an unusual manner. The reason we insist that the switch be deactivated, but with a simple refrigerator we permit to open and close the door in an unusual manner, is that here the switch is not a thermostat and will definitely close the fan motor when the door is opened and start it when the door is closed. With a refrigerator if the door is quickly opened and closed this may not affect the thermostat, as will be explained later. Furthermore it is his intention that the fan motor should start when closing the door to avoid mechanical difficulties that would result otherwise. Closing the door of a simple refrigerator is considered justifying circumstances to permit this through a double Rabbinical prohibition. The reason is that the door must be closed so as not to ruin the refrigerator.

This same reasoning holds true for other models whose extra features are dependent upon a door switch. Another example we can cite is a model that has a cooling freezer system built into the door. There is a knob in the door that opens a cold water spout and another knob that releases crushed ice. When he opens the door the door switch turns off the system's motors that are installed in the door. A minute LED light turns off to indicate that the door system is not functioning. When he closes the door, the door switch turns on the systems door motors and the LED light goes on to indicate that the system is functioning. This door switch should be deactivated. If it was not deactivated and it was not due to his negligence, then when circumstances justify it, he may be permitted to open and close it in an unusual way.

Even if the situation does not justify opening the refrigerator door, but he would like to eat his dessert that was placed in the back and the door would have to remain open several minutes to get to it, he would be permitted to do it through a double Rabbinical prohibition as described before, where two people open the door by pulling a towel wrapped on the door handle. However, when he is benefitting from opening or closing the door such as with the case of the light bulb going on when the door is opened, or when the door's refrigerator freezer system restarts when the door is closed, it is forbidden unless the circumstances justify it.

On Yom Tov that does not fall on the Sabbath, it is permitted to kindle one fire from another for the needs of the holiday, but it is Rabbinically forbidden to create a fire. Electricity running through a wire is not hot and does not melt its covering. Therefore, it is Rabbinically forbidden to turn on a bulb, since hot sparks are created and the metal tips of the wires producing the sparks become red hot. Even considering all of the above problems where the circumstances justify it, he may open the door in an unusual manner. On Yom Tov this is a double Rabbinical prohibition. In this way we could also permit opening the door just for the joy of Yom Tov, even if the circumstances does not otherwise justify it. The exceptions to this are, if the light bulb goes on when the door is opened or when the door's refrigerator-freezer system restarts when it is closed, as explained before.

We do not intend to totally prohibit opening and closing the refrigerator when done in the usual way. There are various opinions upon which we can rely (heterim) to permit this. There is also a specific situation when it can be permitted. The method described above of two people opening and closing the door in an unusual way is recommended to avoid relying on controversial opinions and to include all situations. Where the work being done is Rabbinical such as quenching a metal fire and no benefit is derived from it, the Bais Yosef permits it, but the Ramah forbids it, unless the work being done is a double Rabbinical prohibition that does not create anything beneficial. Creating sparks that are not useful and consequently considered not done intentionally, is not permitted by the Bais Yosef because sparks are Biblically prohibited. For this, one would have to rely on the singular opinion of the Aruch that permits it, because he holds that where one does not intentionally create the sparks, it is permitted.

The specific situation when opening a refrigerator may be generally permitted is if he has placed the food in the front of the refrigerator and he quickly opens and closes the door. Since it is open only for a very short period, it causes only a minute temperature change. The accuracy of a refrigerator thermostat is plus or minus several degrees. Therefore, if he opens and closes the door when the thermostat has temporarily closed the system, by the time it becomes warm enough to restart the system, the thermostat inaccuracy may have changed to demand a higher temperature to restart the motor, thus offsetting the change he made by opening and closing the door. The same holds true if he opens and quickly closes the door when the system is going. His action may not have influenced the system to continue working longer. Another factor is that a refrigerator or freezer full of food preserves the cold much better and is much less influenced by the opening of the door than an empty refrigerator.

You may ask, how is he permitted to close the door immediately after opening it while the system is on, since, if it would remain open, the motor would continue, and by closing it the thermostat will close the motor. The answer is, first, if he had not held the door, but he took out the food before it closed by itself, the above logic would no longer apply, since the door would not have remained open. Second, he must close the door so as not to definitely violate the work of creating sparks, which is prohibited, and he may rely on the Bais Yosef in this instance who would permit quenching a metal fire in this case because it is a Rabbinical prohibition done unintentionally. The best way to solve the problem is to open the door when the refrigerator is off, or to have a timer turn it off during meal time.

RV refrigerator systems that are used in refrigerated tractor trailers and mobile home trailers use a gas flame to heat the liquid ammonia refrigerant. This system is preferable than having aboard an expensive and noisy powerful electric generator to run the refrigerator. If opening the refrigerator door will eventually cause the gas flame to ignite on the Sabbath, then it is Biblically forbidden to open the door since he benefits by the gas igniting and thereby cooling the refrigerator. If it is not definite that opening the door will cause this reaction then it is Rabbinically forbidden.

A simple refrigerator's freezer defrost system defrosts the ice through a metal coil heating element that turns red-hot and is contained in a glass tube. The heating element is turned on every eight or ten hours through a built-in timer. The heat lasts between twenty and thirty-five minutes. When the freezer base is warm enough the freezer's thermostat turns the heating element off. Opening or closing the door does not turn on the heating element. When he opens the door the temperature rises and will cause the thermostat to turn off the element earlier. This is not considered quenching a fire unless there is a fire. Therefore, unless the heating element is on, opening the door is permitted. Causing the heating element to turn off is considered intentional, because, if it remains on it will damage the system. Closing the door halts the increase in temperature and causes the heating element to burn longer. This is comparable to moving the off switch of a timer to a later hour so that when it turns on the bulb it will burn longer. Causing the heating element to burn longer is considered intentional, because it is done in order that it should work properly. With a new refrigerator,it is possible to calculate the approximate time the timer will turn on the defrost. It is during this time that the freezer door should be opened in an unusual manner and closed by two people in an unusual way. This way is only permissible when the circumstances justify it, since he is benefitting by the prohibited works that are being done through his action. Due to the inaccuracy of the timer, after a while we do not know when it will turn the defrost on, and if it is not on, there is no prohibition of extinguishing a fire. Furthermore, if it is close to the end of the Sabbath and there is a probability that the timer will not turn on the defrost until lets say seven hours, and then it will be after the Sabbath, then, by closing the door, it is only questionable if it will violate the Sabbath. It is therefore, a questionable intentional Rabbinical prohibition and is permitted. One can also permit it with a new refrigerator when he knows the system is on, if the door is opened and allowed to close by itself quickly, as explained. Due to the thermostat inaccuracy, the minute change in temperature may not cause the metal fire to be extinguished earlier. Since he does not hold it open, but just pushes it open and lets it close by itself, it is not considered as if it would have remained open.

The problem remaining is when he holds the door open and there is definitely enough time before the end of the Sabbath for the freezer's timer to turn on the defrost. Then by closing the door he causes the defrost to work longer. He is benefitting by the defrost working longer since this is the proper way for it to function. This would be a Biblical prohibition since it is intentional. However, this is not a definite cause and effect, because if the door had been open for many hours before the timer turned on, the defrost and the freezer would be defrosted through the hot air of the environment, before the heating coil could heat up, the thermostat would close the defrost system because the freezer is warm enough. Since his primary intention of the act of closing the door is to preserve the cold, and the secondary result of this same act which is causing the defrost to work longer, is not a definite result, therefore, the secondary result is considered unintentional according to halacha, although he is benefitting from it working longer. It is now a questionable Rabbinical prohibition to close the freezer door and is permitted. With a new refrigerator-freezer appliance one can determine the approximate time the system will turn on. If it is close to turning on it is Biblically prohibited to close the freezer door. However, if he lets it remain open, he will cause damage to the freezer and have a considerable loss. To avoid this loss, he is permitted to close it through a double Rabbinical prohibition. Two people closing it in an unusual manner is a double Rabbinical prohibition. On Yom Tov, when the prohibition of heating a coil is a Rabbinical prohibition, by closing the freezer door in an unusual way, he is violating a double Rabbinical prohibition. He may be able to install a random timer that has no fixed time to turn on the defrost. It may turn it on after eight hours or after ten hours. This way, even with a new system it is permissible to close the freezer door because of a questionable Rabbinical prohibition.

The adaptive defrost system has a computerized system that counts the number of times and the length of time the freezer door is opened and decides upon this information when to turn on the heating element to melt the ice. If opening the freezer door will eventually cause the heating element to ignite on the Sabbath, then it is Biblically forbidden to open the door since he benefits by the defrost system. If it is not definite that opening the door will cause this reaction then it is Rabbinically forbidden.

The cooling systems of cold water fountains work with a thermostat. As the fountain's cold water leaves, tap water enters until the temperature has been sufficiently reduced for the thermostat to start the cooling system. Even if his taking a drink does not start the system, it will cause it to go on earlier because the water temperature has increased. This is a violation of intentionally making a temporary implement because, when it goes on for a short period, it is due to his action. It is also a violation of unintentionally creating motor sparks. If he takes a drink while the cooling system is on, he causes the system to work longer, which is a violation of creating motor sparks. Even if we would use the reasoning that due to inaccuracy of the thermostat it is not definite that a short drink would make a difference in the function of the cooling system, it would still be prohibited, but only if the system is not on. The reason is because the odds are that it will cause the system to go on earlier and he is benefitting from the cooling process for the next drink. Furthermore very often a person who intended to take only a short drink will continue drinking longer to the point where it becomes definite that the cooling system will turn on. At this point, drinking while the system is on will also be prohibited. It is, therefore, very advisable to disconnect the cooling system before the Sabbath and to close the pipe feeding tap water into the cold water storage bin in order to keep it colder longer.

Air conditioners work with thermostats the same way as refrigerators. Therefore, by opening the door of the room where the air conditioner is functioning, the temperature rises and the system will have to work longer to cool the room before it can rest for a while. This is a prohibition of unintentionally creating motor sparks. By closing the door he causes the unit to stop working earlier than it would have if the door would have remained open. This is a Rabbinical prohibition of unintentionally quenching a metal fire. If he opens the door when the system is off, the temperature rises and will cause the system to start earlier. This is a Rabbinical prohibition of creating a temporary implement and of unintentionally creating motor sparks. If he closes the door when the system is off, he causes the unit to start later than it would have if the door was left open. There is no prohibition in this. The problem of creating switch sparks can be avoided by having a timer turn on the machine. In order to solve these problems we must define the need for using an air conditioner and differences between the thermostatic control of a refrigerator and an air conditioner.

The discomfort brought on by hot weather interferes with the comfort of the Sabbath. An electric fan is not a substitute in environments where people live with air conditioners during the week. Leaving the door open when the air conditioner is working will not damage it because they are built to work all day. With only this information we could compare this situation to that of using a refrigerator. Therefore, he would only be permitted to use it if feels that without it he will suffer. Even then, he must open and close the door in an unusual way. Opening the door with his body is not considered an unusual way to open a door.

If the room is uncomfortably cold, he should leave the room and not violate even a Rabbinical prohibition. If, however, their is central air conditioning and all the other rooms are just as cold, then it is preferable to wait until the thermostat turns it off and then turn up the thermostat in an unusual way so that it does not go on again. If he cannot wait until the thermostat turns it off, then, he may turn it off by this same method. Turning off the air conditioner through the thermostatic control is preferable than turning off the power switch because many thermostats use non sparking switches. If the timer turned it off, then, he may turn the power switch off. It is however, preferable to turn it off in an unusual manner.

If he will be uncomfortable without an air conditioner, then, theoretically, we can permit two people to open the door in an unusual way. This is an unintentional double Rabbinical prohibition that is permitted when needed even if the circumstances do not justify it. However, this is totally impractical since he is constantly leaving and entering the room. At this point we may invoke the method where he opens the door leaving only a narrow space for his body to pass through and he enters or leaves quickly, immediately closing the door behind him. This will minimize the change of temperature caused by opening the door. Then taking into consideration that the inaccuracy of an air conditioner thermostat is plus or minus between two and five degrees we can conclude that it is not definite that he caused any change in the thermostat, as explained before. This is permitted when he is allowed to close the door when the system is off, and there is no prohibition of quenching the metal fire. However, by closing the door when the system is on he definitely causes it to stop earlier than it would have if left open. If the system would remain on all day, it would not damage it. Therefore, there is no circumstance that can be considered justifiable in order to permit closing the door unless it is closed in an unusual manner. This way it becomes an unintentional double Rabbinical prohibition and is permitted if the room will become uncomfortably hot if the door remains open. This situation, where he must close the door in an unusual way each time he leaves the room is also not very practical although possible. We, therefore, must incorporate other variables related to an air conditioner that make the closing of the door in some cases a questionable Rabbinical prohibition and, therefore, permitted. The variables that control the temperature change in the refrigerator can be listed and calculated with some accuracy. With the air conditioner, not all variables are predictable, thus making it even harder to conclude that opening the door will cause a change in the thermostat. Some of these variables are the change in weather, the amount of body heat radiated by people who will enter the room, the amount of heat entering the room from outside due to faulty insulation. The latter variable can be approximated for each house. If, however, it is cloudy then the change in weather may close the system before the closing of the door will. In this case, closing the door is permitted.

Furthermore, there are models that function such that when the thermostat is set at the coldest setting, and it is hot outside, it will always remain on. This is because the general models that are sold for a room are not able to cool the room to the shut-off temperature needed, especially when part of the unit is outside in the heat. This is reliable unless there is a sudden drop in temperature and the unit begins to go on and off. The best way to resolve the problem is to use a central heating system. The controlling thermostat should be placed in a closet at the end of the house. This closet becomes sealed upon the closing of the door before the Sabbath. In this way the normal opening and closing of the door should not affect the thermostat.

On Yom Tov, if the system is on, and he opens the door, causing it to run longer, he is transgressing a Rabbinical prohibition of creating motor sparks unintentionally. This is permitted when the circumstances justify it. If he opens it in an unusual manner, it is an unintentional double Rabbinical prohibition, and it was not forbidden. When he closes it, he causes it to go off earlier. This is a Rabbinical prohibition of unintentionally quenching a metal fire. If he closes it in an unusual way, it is not forbidden. If the system is off, and he opens the door causing it to start earlier it is a Rabbinical prohibition of unintentionally creating motor sparks. If he opens it in an unusual way it is not forbidden.

Some hotels employ motion detector switches to automatically turn the air conditioner on and off. So long as someone is moving within the hotel apartment the detectors boomerang beam detects motion and leaves the air conditioner on. When there is no one in the apartment the motion detector turns off the electrical power that was flowing to the air conditioner. When someone reenters, the detector turns on the switch. The unwanted sparks created by closing and opening the switch is a singular Rabbinical prohibition. Therefore, so long as the air conditioner switch is on and he is alone in the room, he is forbidden to leave or reenter. He must pray and eat in his room during the Sabbath. It is advisable in such a situation to close the air conditioner before the Sabbath. He may also experiment before the Sabbath if the motion detector can be fooled by turning the shower on before he leaves. If he forgot and he is very uncomfortable because he cannot eat out in honor of the Sabbath, he may ask a non Jew to close the air conditioner. When reentering he may not ask a non Jew to open the air conditioner, because when the non Jew leaves it is he who is then causing the air conditioner to continue working and continue creating sparks. He must leave before the non Jew.

If there are two occupying a room, when they both leave together they are violating a double Rabbinical prohibition which can be permitted if they feel very uncomfortable because they cannot eat out in honor of the Sabbath. For the same reason they may reenter although this will start the air conditioner, providing that they will feel very uncomfortable staying out of the room. On Yom Tov, if the same conditions apply, a single person may leave and reenter because creating switch and motor sparks on Yom Tov is a double Rabbinical prohibition.

Some hospitals employ motion detector switches that flush the toilet as the user leaves the area. Some open the water faucet as the user approaches it. Each time the switch and motor are turned on and each time the switch is turned off, sparks are created. Therefore, it is forbidden to use these faucets on the Sabbath. When preparing to leave the toilet area he must cover the motion detectors eye with something such as tissue paper so that it will not sense anyone leaving the area. If it has a manual flush, then by pressing this flush and leaving the area immediately thereafter, the sensor will not activate the motorized flush.

The problems relating to a thermostatically controlled electric heater are more serious than an air conditioner because he benefits from the heat produced by the red-hot heating coil. Heating the coil is a Biblical work. Furthermore, air conditioners are usually placed in the window or wall of the building which is opposite the door. However, a heater is very often placed near the door, and its thermostat is therefore much more influenced through opening and closing the door. If he placed the heater at the opposite side of the door, then we may apply the same rule for unpredictable variables that cause room temperature changes as was applied to the air conditioner. The heater is more efficient than the air conditioner and in a normally insulated room it will cause the thermostat to turn it on and off even when set at the highest setting. A room can be cooled by an air conditioner to a degree where one can catch a cold. This would then put him in the category where he is permitted to violate a double Rabbinical prohibition to avoid catching the cold. This is generally not the case with a heater. Furthermore in a normally insulated apartment where the heat goes on at normal intervals, the lack of using a heater will only result in slight discomfort and will not be the cause of illness for a healthy individual. This problem is the same for a thermostatically controlled central heating system. Some use electrically heated coils, some boil water and heat through steam or through boiling water pumped through the pipes. The best way to resolve the problem is to have a proper heating system that would not necessitate the use of extra heaters. The controlling thermostat should be placed in a closet at the end of the house. This closet becomes sealed upon the closing of the door before the Sabbath. This way the normal opening and closing of the door will not affect the thermostat.

We will now return to trying to solve the problem of how to permit the use of an electrical heater when necessary. The first step of solving a problem is by clearly defining the problem. If the heater is on and he opens the door, the room temperature decreases and the heater will work longer before it can turn off temporarily. If the heater is off and he opens the door, the cold air entering the room will cause the heater to turn on sooner. Both cases are a violation of the Biblical work of kindling a fire. We cannot demand that he stay in his room for the duration of the Sabbath even if the room is a dining room. For reasons of health, he must relieve himself. Confining oneself in a room can be a cause of anguish. When the circumstances justify it, he may open the door together with another person in an unusual way.

In the case when the heater is working, when he closes the door the heat is preserved and it will now turn off earlier than it would have if the door had remained open. This is an intentional Rabbinical prohibition since he desires normal room temperature. Closing the door when leaving the room does not otherwise justify it, unless it will become cold enough to endanger his health. In this case, he may close the door in an unusual manner which results in a double Rabbinical prohibition. If the heater is powerful enough to heat the area that now includes the adjacent room connected by the open door, when the heater goes off there is no prohibition to close the door. The simplest way to leave the room is to wait until the heater is off. If when, he is permitted to close the door he must leave the room, we may permit him to open the door in the regular way. He may open the door only as much as he needs to exit providing that the heater is placed opposite the door and he must close it in an unusual way immediately afterwards. Although he desires the extra heat, it is not definite that opening the door this way will cause a change in the thermostat because of the thermostat's inaccuracy. This is a questionable Rabbinical prohibition. If the door closes by spring action, he may allow the door to close by itself as long as he did not hold it open. If, however, the odds are that opening the door this way will cause a change in the thermostat, then he must open it in an unusual manner. Where there is a questionable Rabbinical prohibition in opening the door, it is permitted, even if the circumstances does not otherwise justify it.

By closing the door when the heater is off he preserves the heat of the room and delays the heater from turning on. This is not a prohibition, as explained before. To avoid the problem of switch sparks, he may use a timer to turn it on or off.

On Yom Tov, heating of a coil is a Rabbinical prohibition. Therefore, by opening the door he is violating an intentional Rabbinical prohibition. In circumstances that justify it, he may open it in an unusual way.

The latest models of electric hot plates used for warming food are built with a thermostat. Such a hot plate functions the same way as an electric pot that is thermostatically controlled. The thermostat's sensor is placed under the top protective cover and below it heat is being produced by red hot heating coils. When the sensor senses that the food on the plate has reached the desired temperature, the thermostat temporarily switches the coil off. Now adding new cold food that was broiled, fried or baked to the hot plate, will cause the thermostat to turn it back on. If it is added to the hot plate when on, it will cause it to work longer. If he removes a larger piece of food and leaves behind a smaller piece while the hot-plate is on, this will cause it to go off prematurely, because if the large piece would have remained it would have taken longer to warm it. This is an intentional violation of quenching a metal fire because he now will pay less for electricity. However, if the hot plate was off, he is then permitted to remove the food that was placed on it before the Sabbath. Usually there is a LED light that goes on and off to indicate that the thermostat has turned the coil on or off. For a person who is ill and the food was not put on the hot plate before the Sabbath, they may do so through a double Rabbinical prohibition by two people placing it in an unusual manner. On Yom Tov this may be done either in an unusual manner or by two people doing it together.

The electric crock pot is constructed as a pot within a pot. The outer pot encases electrodes that heat the food in the inner pot. If this model has a thermostatic control then the law regarding this appliance is the same as the flat bed food warmer that is thermostatically controlled, and is forbidden to be used on the Sabbath as explained before. If it does not have a thermostatic control, but has a control that adjusts the heat then this control should be covered during use on the Sabbath to guard against forgetfully adjusting the heat. If the inner pot was removed on the Sabbath it is forbidden by Rabbinical law to return it. If the walls of the inner pot does not touch the walls of the outer pot it is permitted to return it even if they touch at base.

The situation of a refrigerator regarding the inaccuracy of its thermostat is not the same as with a hot plate regarding the inaccuracy of its thermostat. The total area of the hot plate is much smaller than the cubic area inside the refrigerator cabin. Therefore, placing a plate of food or pot on the hot plate occupies and affects a much larger percentage of the hot plate relative to the thermostat, than quickly opening and closing a refrigerator door affects the refrigerator relative to its thermostat. We therefore, cannot permit this by the reasoning that the thermostat is inaccurate. Perhaps we may consider this if he needs to place only a very small piece of food to warm on the hot- plate.

We will now discuss the halachic problems relating to three types of boiler heating systems that are thermostatically controlled. The first is the gas heating system. The second is the oil heating system. The third is the electric coil heating system. When the water loses heat and reaches a temperature that was pre-set on the thermostat, the thermostat turns on the heating system until it reaches the degree set to turn the heating system off. The major factors causing the boiler to lose heat are the following: The colder the environment the more rapidly the heat is lost. When he opens the faucet and hot water leaves the boiler, cold water replaces it. In the winter the tap water is much colder than in the summer. Furthermore, a larger amount of hot water loses less heat proportionately than a smaller amount of hot water. There is another boiler heating system that does not use a thermostat. This is a solar heating system. On the roof is installed a highly heat absorbing black body with efficient heat transferring tubes that lead from the black body into the boiler.

Opening a faucet by itself is not forbidden on the grounds that he causes the city pumps to pump water for his use. The reason is that the pumps are not constantly adjusting to every faucet being turned on. They maintain a constant pressure and adjust to the demand by increasing and decreasing the number of pumps in service. They also work at levels where, when there is an increase in demand, a certain fixed amount of pumps go on, which is more than what is needed at that moment. When the demand increases again, a second group of pumps are turned on. It is, therefore, not probable that his turning on the faucet would tip the present level of demand onto a higher level, turning on more pumps. At any one time there are people all over the city turning on and off faucets. When he turns his on, others may be turning theirs off to offset his action.

There are circumstances where the city's water pumps are not sufficient for a specific instillation and a separate electric pump must be used. These pumps have water sensitive switches that turn a pump on or off, depending on the water level, therefore, any action increasing the water volume or raising the water level may cause the motor to start, or to work longer if it is presently pumping. However, he does not know if his action will be the one that will cause the motor to start or to work longer. It is therefore, a questionable Rabbinical prohibition and is permitted. When installing a system in his home it is preferable to attach the pump to a timer that would turn the pump on and off regardless of the water level.

We will now discuss the thermostatically controlled boiler heating systems. The gas system is controlled by a thermostat that controls a gas switch. On some models it also controls a spark switch. When the gas pipe is opened, the gas is ignited either by a pilot light that is constantly burning, or by a spark switch that opens simultaneously with the gas switch. The oil system works on the same principles as the gas system with the obvious exception that oil is ignited. The electric heating system works with a red-hot metal element that is turned on by the thermostat. Starting these systems violates the Biblical works of kindling a fire and cooking. Turning off these systems is Rabbinically prohibited because these fires burn without wicks and are in the category of extinguishing a metal fire. On Yom-Tov cooking is permitted, but creating sparks or creating a metal fire is Rabbinically prohibited.

Opening a faucet causes cold or luke warm tap water to enter the boiler. This is a violation of a Biblical work at all times since the boiler water is always above the minimum temperature needed for cooking and will consequently cook the tap water entering the boiler. If the faucet is left open for a period of time it definitely will cause the heating system to go on. Theoretically, if it is left open for a short period of time, the heat reduction will cause the boiler to turn on earlier. However, due to the inaccuracy of the thermostat, this is not definite. The explanation of what is considered a small temperature change made by turning the faucet on and off for a short period, is dependent on the above mentioned variables. Turning the faucet on when the system is on will cause the system to work longer. If he would open it for a short time, the heat reduction, theoretically, would cause it to work longer, but due to the inaccuracy of the thermostat this is not definite. If he closes the faucet while the heating system is on, this will cause it to turn off prematurely, which is a Rabbinical prohibition. If the system is off there is no prohibition. The way to find out if the system is on is to see it. Even if the hot water faucet was open for a long time the heating system may have boiled the water to the shut-off level because it is a powerful unit. If he forgot and opened the faucet he must shut it even if the system is working in order to avoid violating Biblical prohibitions. If the water is no longer hot, closing of the faucet will stop the cold water flow into the boiler causing the boiler to cook the water, which is a Biblical work. Therefore, in this case, he is forbidden to close the hot water faucet even if he accidentally opened it. For a seriously ill person who needs to drink hot water and the hot faucet water is sufficient, two people should turn it on in an unusual manner. This can be done by wrapping a hand towel around the faucet and opening it. If afterwards he will still need hot water for the rest of the Sabbath and the heating system will not be able to keep the boiler hot at the rate the water is leaving the faucet, then he may close it in an unusual way, or two may close it in the usual way. If, however, a fire or an electric cooking stove was on, it is preferable to cook a pot this way since there is no violation of kindling. The pot should be placed on the burner by two people in an unusual manner. On Yom-Tov cooking is permitted and transferring fire is permitted. Only the systems that ignite the fuel through sparks are forbidden. Therefore, the only question on Yom-Tov would be if he would definitely start the sparking system. This could be in the case when the patient needs a hot shower or bath. In such a case one person may open it in an unusual way, or two people may open it in the usual way.

Even if he would put the heating system on a timer, nevertheless opening the faucet, would cause changes in the thermostat when the timer restarts the system. Therefore, the correct way to use the hot water faucet on the Sabbath is to purchase a large very well insulated boiler. Before the start of the Sabbath he should boil the water to maximum, then both the heating system and the pipe that pours tap water into the boiler should be closed. It is not sufficient to close the tap water pipe alone which is the source of the cold water that is lowering the heat of the boiler and causing the system to turn on. The reason is that the less the volume of hot water, the faster it loses heat to the environment, as with a thermos bottle. Therefore, unless the heating system is turned off, by opening the faucet he will cause the system to turn on prematurely .

Electric percolators or electric kettles that have a thermostat control are forbidden to use on the Sabbath because if there is more hot water in the tank then it takes more time to loose heat, and if there is less hot water then it cools faster, (the same as with a thermos bottle), therefore, removing hot water from the electric kettle causes the thermostat to turn on the heating system earlier.

Those electric percolators or electric kettles that do not operate on a thermostatic control, operate on a system that boils the cool water that was added and then keeps it hot using a constant fixed heat setting that does not vary in degrees and that is on all the time. With this system it is permitted to pour water from it, but it is forbidden to pour water into it. However, if it has a water level indicator it must be removed or made inoperable by stopping up the hole that connects the water in the water level indicator to the water in the tank. The reason for this is that the heat from the tank does not transfer completely to the water in the water level indicator, therefore the water in the indicator is not cooked. When the water in the tank is released the level of the water in the indicator drops because some of it enters the tank and is cooked there.

The solar heating system has different halachic problems. We will discuss the system that does not have a thermostat control although it does have an optional manual electric heating coil system. The heat of a solar system is derived directly from the sun. It does not produce electricity that powers an electrical heating system. On the roof is installed a highly heat-absorbing black body with efficient heat-transferring tubes that lead from the black body into the boiler. Depending on the amount of heat concentrated on the absorbent panel, the boiler water may become warm or very hot. When the hot water faucet is opened, tap water enters the boiler from another pipe. The installation is sealed and not accessible. Therefore, we do not fear that he may do an action that would heat the water faster. Even if it was cooked on the Sabbath it is permitted to use. The problem is with the tap water that is cooked while the hot water faucet is on. This is a Rabbinical prohibition and not a Biblical one. The reason is that there is no prohibition to cook in direct sunlight. There is a Rabbinical prohibition to cook from a secondary source so as not to confuse it with a secondary source of a fire. Since the water is not part of the solar heating panel and the solar heating panel is a secondary source of direct sunlight, he is not allowed to heat the water through this panel. If there is a thermometer attached to the boiler indicating if the water is cooking or not, then he must first check the thermometer to see if he is permitted to open the faucet. If he cannot verify if the water in the boiler is cooking, but based on his experience, he judges by the weather that the odds are that it is very warm but not cooking, he is permitted to open the faucet because it is a questionable Rabbinical prohibition. If the odds are that it is cooking and he needs more hot water for the Sabbath and therefore he wants the entering tap water to be cooked also, it is forbidden. If he does not need more hot water then it is permitted as an unintentional, questionable, Rabbinical prohibition. If he does not need any more hot water, if he opens it in an unusual way he is permitted even if the water is cooking. This is an unintentional double Rabbinical prohibition. For a seriously ill person he may open it in an unusual way even if the water is cooking and he needs more hot water later.

Although it is permitted to cook by direct sunlight, this does not include sunlight that has changed its character through the use of lenses. The use of a magnifying lens is Rabbinically prohibited because the concentrated light and heat no longer appear as sunlight. Kindling a fire through direct sunlight was never permitted, therefore, it remains a prohibited Biblical work.

It is forbidden to set a dishwasher machine on a timer to turn on during the Sabbath if he places the dirty dishes in it on the Sabbath. The reasons for this prohibition are as follows: First, it is Rabbinically forbidden to pour hot water upon the remaining food stuck to the plate. Second, since it is definite that the dishwasher will turn on during the Sabbath and he is using the machine the proper way by placing the dishes into the dishwasher, this is considered as if he is pouring the hot water on the dirty dishes.

Microwave ovens use microwaves to cook food, and they can burn paper when placed in the proper position. Although the waves themselves are not considered a fire because they do not radiate or glow, nevertheless they are considered as a secondary source of fire which is Biblically prohibited. A secondary source does not have to actually acquire its heat from a fire. So long as it's hot and did not acquire its heat from sunlight, it is forbidden. There is no transfer of heat from one source to another. The heat is being created rather than transferred, therefore, on Yom-Tov it is forbidden to kindle a fire using a microwave. It is theoretically permitted to cook on Yom Tov using microwaves, but it is forbidden to turn on a microwave oven. The reason is that the switch and the electric fan create sparks due to his action.

There are two types of vaporizers. The hot water vaporizer when turned on heats metal electrodes red-hot and the electrodes boil the water, producing steam. It has an automatic turn-off feature that turns off the electrodes when the water level is low. Therefore, adding water causes the electrodes to burn longer. Turning on the vaporizer is a violation of kindling a fire and cooking. For a seriously ill person it is permitted to turn it on by two people pressing on the switch with an implement. It is also permitted to add water by two people holding a pitcher, with a rag that passes through the handle and with the back of the hand lifting the pitcher to pour the water into the vaporizer.

The cold water vaporizer does not boil water and does not operate through an electrode. It operates through a motor. Turning on and off the switch produces sparks. Turning on the motor creates sparks and heats the ends of the wires that produce the sparks. Turning off the motor extinguishes the glowing ends of the wires. Adding water causes the motor to work longer and continue producing sparks. For a seriously ill person he may open the machine and add water, doing both in an unusual manner. This is a double Rabbinical prohibition.

It is forbidden to use or benefit from anything resulting from desecrating the Sabbath even if done by a non-Jew for a Jew. In a city where the Jewish population is significant, it is obvious that the electricity that is being produced by non- Jewish labor is also being produced for and being paid by the Jews. The question arises, why do we permit ourselves to benefit from electricity on the Sabbath? The answer is, that they are permitted to create electricity for many reasons: to avoid accidents by lighting buildings and streets; for the joy of the Sabbath, to keep refrigerators working to prevent food from spoiling; for sanitation reasons, to flush toilets and wash hands; and above all, for the sick and critically ill who use electrical devices in hospitals and at home.

The situation in Israel is much different. There, the workers in the electric power stations are Jews. Much progress has been made in the past two decades in Israel in the development and institution of automated systems that allow the equipment to work by themselves for more than twenty-four hours. They are serviced before the start of the Sabbath, and immediately after the Sabbath. If, however, on rare occasions there is a power failure, it is definite that Jews repaired it. This can be sanctioned because today, power outages are not a common occurrence, especially on the Sabbath when factories and businesses are closed and the demand for electricity is largely diminished. Therefore, they are not required to prepare and pay non-Jewish workers every Sabbath in anticipation of such an occurrence. Furthermore, when there is a power failure lives are in danger because of the life- support systems used in the hospital and private homes. Therefore, those at the station must repair it immediately. We do not mean to say that while they are repairing it they should not make an effort to call in skilled non-Jewish help to minimize the work done by Jews. If one can, it is preferable that he minimizes his use of electrically operated devices after there has been a power outage on the Sabbath.

There are several good reasons that so much effort was put into instituting automated systems where no work is done on the Sabbath. The first is that there are enough skilled non- Jewish workers who do not constitute a security risk, who can do the job on the Sabbath. Therefore, employing Jewish workers to desecrate the Sabbath is a desecration of the Torah itself.

The real problem today is for those who live in places where there is no automated system and Jews are producing the electricity on the Sabbath. In some cases he is permitted to benefit from the electricity, and in some cases he is forbidden.

If the desecration of the Sabbath was erroneous, and there was no discernible change in the object that was involved with this desecration, he is permitted to benefit from this object on the Sabbath. We may permit items that are essential to basic living using the reasoning that the workers are not desecrating the Sabbath intentionally since there are those who permit them to, for the purpose of maintaining life support equipment. Therefore, he may benefit from the city tap water pumped in by electric pumps. He may benefit from food stored in the refrigerator to preserve it. If, however, he wants to drink it cold, then the cold is considered a change in the object the same way as cooked water is considered a change in the water. He may drink it when the beverage is room temperature. The electrical lighting may be used by day in rooms where he can see by sunlight and does not need the electrical lighting. In the evening, he may use the electrical lighting if there is another permissible source of lighting. Some prohibit the use of home electrical generators that create much noise because it disturbs the joy of the Sabbath.

It is forbidden to flush the toilet when a soap-like toilet cleanser bar is attached to the inner side of the bowel, because the water pouring down into the bowel is rubbing the soap-like bar. If it also colors the water there is an added prohibition of dyeing. Therefore, this soap-like bar must be removed before Shabbos.

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